Forum for Environmental management and Research

Ramsar Sites are nationally designated and internationally recognized wetlands (Simsar)§ under the Ramsar Convention. Wetlands are important ecosystems, which are rich in biodiversity. Their values in terms of direct and indirect use, functional values and bequest values are now widely appreciated. Their importance at the global level was first appreciated at the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat, held at Ramsar, a city in Iran in 1971. Since then several wetlands of international importance have been listed as Ramsar Sites. All the countries, which are signatories of the convention, are obliged to designate at least one wetland in their respective territory as a Ramsar Site.

There are presently 130 Contracting Parties to the Convention, with 1109 wetland sites, totaling 87.25 million hectares, designated for inclusion in the Ramsar List of Wetlands of International Importance. Nepal acceded to the Ramsar Convention on 17 April 1988, and Koshi Tappu region was included on the Ramsar list of Wetlands of International Importance, commonly called Ramsar Site. As yet Koshi Tappu is the only Ramsar Site of Nepal to be included in the list of Wetlands of International Importance.

The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands, is an intergovernmental treaty that provides the framework for national action and international cooperation for the conservation and wise use of wetlands and their resources. To achieve this, the Convention places general obligations on states which are contracting parties relating to the conservation of wetlands throughout their territory, and special obligations pertaining to those wetlands which have been designated for the "List of Wetlands of International Importance"

Wetlands are essential for the protection of endangered and threatened species. Wetlands in Nepal are rich in bio-diversity. This statement can be verified by the presence of 172 species of fish, and 190 wetland dependent birds (out of 850 species of birds of Nepal) (See Table 1). Moreover, the aquatic reptiles and the mammals have also played a vital role in the diversification of the faunal varieties throughout the Nepalese wetlands.

Nepal's wetland is characterized by the floral diversity more than the faunal diversity. Twenty-five percent of the 7,000 species of plants recorded in Nepal are aquatic. Of the 700 species of endemic plants, 27 are rare, seven are threatened, and nine are endangered species of endemic plants.

TABLE 1: MIGRATORY WATERFOWLS KNOWN TO USE NEPALESE WETLANDS

TYPE OF WATERFOWL	NUMBER OF SPECIES	PER CENT
Migratory species	90	47%
Resident species	66	35%
Uncommon and rare resident species	34	18%
Total	190	100%

The Jalachar Sanrachhan Ain - 2017 (Aquatic Life Protection, 1961) is one of Nepal's oldest pieces of legislation indicating the early recognition of wetlands and aquatic life values. It prohibits the use of poison and explosive substances in water bodies, but this Act remains ineffective as nobody has been prosecuted for violating the Act. It does not specify an agency to administer or enforce the Act.

Much of the legislation concerning protected areas is irrelevant to wetland habitats. The National Park and Wildlife Conservation Act (1973) provides a legal basis for Nepal's conservation program. The national park and wildlife program were initiated in 1974 to control hunting and restrict wild animal trade in accordance with the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) of wild flora and fauna, of which Nepal is a signatory. Other relevant regulations include the Royal Chitwan National Park Regulation (1975), Himalayan Mountain National Park (1979), and Khaptad National Park Regulation (1982).

Nepal is signatory to IUCN-The World Conservation Union, the World Wildlife Fund, CITES, and the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance (the Ramsar Convention) in 1978. Nepal has not yet joined the convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species (CMS) of Wild Animals (the Bonn Convention).

Concept of Community Development

The concept of community development was elaborated as early as in the 1940s by the British colonial government as a process intended "to mobilize the labor of rural communities in support of national government objectives to build social and physical infra-structures and increases self reliance".

It was applied in many sectors in Nepal over the last few decades. Almost all of the development programs in Nepal are based on the community development model. It is applied in the Koshi Tappu Wildlife reserve.

The declaration of the Koshi Tappu area as a Ramsar Site has brought many negative as well as positive impacts in terms of the community development process.

Koshi Tappu is situated in the Eastern Development Region along the Koshi River passing through the districts of Udaipur, Sunsari and Saptari. Twelve Village Development Committees (VDCs) from these districts surround it. The total population of these VDCs is 69,598 with a population growth rate of 2.8 percent.

The Reserve lies on the alluvial floodplain of the Sapta Koshi (or simply Koshi) river and is fed by seven major tributaries: Indrawati, Bhote Koshi (Sun Koshi), Tama Koshi, Dudh Koshi, Likhu, Arun and Tamor.

Three rivers, the Koshi, Gandaki and Karnali and their tributaries drain the country. These are all perennial rivers that flow through varied ranges running in east-west direction. The Koshi river system is considered to be the largest one in the country. Its wide and fertile floodplain houses Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve, the only Ramsar Site of Nepal.

Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve has many wetland habitats such as river, streams, waterfalls, oxbow lakes, freshwater lakes and ponds, riverine marsh, seasonally flooded grassland, reservoir, riverine floodplain, freshwater swamp, river flats, swamps dominated by cattail, and so on.

The area is the last remaining habitat of wild water buffalo, called Arna (Bubalus babalis), ancestor to the domestic buffalo. Their number is about 100 to 150. It was reported that over 50,000 waterfowls were recorded at one time in mid-February. It also houses endangered Gangetic dolphin (Platanista gangetica). Blue bull (Boselaphus tragocamelus) is also found in the Reserve. The site is an important wintering and staging ground for Trans-Himalayan migratory birds including endangered species of swamp partridge (Francolinus gularis) and most threatened species of Bengal floricon (Houbaropsis bengalensis) in the world and other two species at risk; changeable hawk eagle (Spizaetus cirrhatus), and dusky eagle owl (Bubo coromandus). About 325 bird species are recorded in the area. This is about 39 percent of the total bird species recorded in Nepal.

i. Thatch Grass and Fodder Collection: The site is extensively used by local people for collecting thatch grass for roofing their shelters and gathering grass and fodders for their livestock. On an average 200 people go inside the Reserve to collect grasses in a day.

Every winter in January and February, local people are given permit for two weeks to collect thatch grasses from inside the Reserve. During this time period people make temporary shelters near the Koshi River and collect as much thatch grass as possible and carry home on ox-driven cart. ln 1987, about 28,400 tickets were sold. The price of a ticket was Rs.1. During the period of the week, the average number of days people visited was 11 and the average number of loads per person per day was 3. Recent information on grass cutters suggests that its number is relatively decreasing and only about 12,000 took permission to collect grasses in 1993. The drop in the number of grass cutter is due to lack of good thatch grasses as livestock tramples it and there has been a change in the pattern of vegetation in the Reserve.

ii. Fishing: Fishing is a common and important practice inside the Reserve, particularly in the Koshi Rivers and riverine marshes, swamps and seasonally flooded grassland, ditches and ponds. Usually, fishing is done in a group with cast nets and long thin nets. In the barrage area, fisherfolk generally use gill nets, mesh nets and cast nets. The Tharu people also harvest snail (Macrochlamys tugurium) from the area.

iii. Fuel-wood collection: Local people collect animal dung to prepare dung-cake to use as fuel-wood for cooking, and heating purposes. Generally, fresh dung is mixed with rice husk and prepared a cake stick. Local people also use the Reserve for collecting fuel-wood for their household consumption. Carrying a load of dry fuel-wood on the head of an indigenous woman and on the back of a hill migrant is a common scene near the Reserve. Due to population growth, there has been a shortage of fuel-wood in the area and more pressure is on the Reserve.

iv. Cultural uses: The local people to perform various religious as well as cultural rituals collect Lotus leaves. These leaves are also used as leaf plate in the feast and packing material in the local markets. The rivers are considered sacred in Hindu religion and bathing in the river, particularly, in the confluence is a religious practice to earn merit for eternal peace. The river is also used for feasting in rituals and ceremonies.

v. Irrigated Agriculture: Temporary barriers partially across the rivers are built to irrigate rice fields. Building such barrier is a community effort. In the monsoon season, these barriers are easily washed away by flood. Also, the water that leeches out of the river is used to provide irrigation to the rice fields. Rice is the main staple food of Nepal and owning a rice field is considered a prestigious status. The rice seedlings are raised in the nursery and transplanted in the field during the month of July, when there is an abundance of water in the field. Also, local people of a small islet, called Lanka on the north of the Koshi River grow pointed gourd (Trichosanthes dioica). The floodplain is fertile and good for the cultivation of pointed gourd. These gourds are sold at local hat bazaars. The surplus gourds are transported to the Kathmandu valley and nearby towns.

vi. Driftwood: The fuelwood requirement of the communities is partially fulfilled by the collection of driftwood that is brought by the river at the time of the rainy season. The driftwood collection is one of the common practices to generate additional cash income.

vii. Rocks and Boulder Collection: Rocks and Boulders collected from the bed of the river as well as the quarry along the river are broken into pebble to built house with concrete mixture. The migrants, mainly from hilly regions, are engaged in this activity. Also rocks and bolder are collected from the rivers to build houses.

viii. Livestock Raising and Grazing: Animal husbandry is one of the vital components of local economy. People tend buffalo and cattle to meet their basic food and monetary needs through the sale of meat, milk and milk products, manure and use their males as draft animals. Only milking animals are kept stall-fed. Others are herded daily for grazing inside the park. It is believed that some 15-20 thousand cattle and buffaloes are resident in the Reserve.

ix. Cattail Collection: Ethnic groups called Bantars (they like to be called Sirdar) are engaged in cattail (Typah sp.) collection and mattress making in the area. These people harvest good leaves of cattail from the drowned area of the Reserve as well as from the barrage area. Women and children collect them in a place and dry and cure them under the sun. Once they are dried, they are bundled and stored to build mattress. A special wooden handle and grass ropes are used to set up a loom to weave cattail mattress. Mostly women are engaged to weave mattresses, whereas men collect raw materials. Mattresses are taken to the local market on a bicycle and sold for Rs.15 to 40 per piece. The local markets are held on different locations on different days of the week.

An appropriate strategy of wetlands management must be formulated at the policy level involving all the organizations concerned with their conservation. Strategies for their management, conservation, rehabilitation and sustained use of wetland resources are suggested below:

· Encourage local clubs, NGOs and professional groups to become involved in wetland management

· Design primary, secondary, and tertiary curricula to incorporate wetland studies

· Strengthen channels of communication for public awareness campaigns regarding wetland use and conservation

No unified approach exists for the sustainable utilization of wetland resources. Basic issues plaguing planners and implementers of wetlands management programs are:

Ownership Of Wetlands No law exists for a single institution to claim priority over wetlands. A wetland in a forest is under the jurisdiction of three different agencies: fisheries, water resources, and forestry.

Lack Of Awareness Wetlands are not legitimized as a valuable ecosystem, nor are they recognized as a significant component of the ecosystem. They are converted into agricultural land as soon as access to them is claimed.

Impact Of Externalities There are always adverse impacts from externalities such as fertilizer and pesticide runoff from agricultural land that pollutes rivers, lakes, reservoirs, creeks and ponds. Deforestation and industrial development in the catchment areas cause serious siltation of wetlands.

Lack Of A Responsible Institution No institution in Nepal has a program with a single focus on wetlands management.

It can be argued that the local peoples are one of the major determinants of the value of protected areas (Ramsar Site). But the role of community development in expanding public support for protected areas/site is a source of many debates. Conflict stems from the desire to both preserve natural settings and to allow people access to them.

Conflict concerning protected areas and the local people also revolves around the resource protection versus development debate. However, actual conflict usually occurs not within the protected area itself, but in the interface between the park boundary and the surrounding area.

The situation of the community cannot improve much in the direction of more just, equitable and sustainable society unless unified approaches to incorporate the poorer section of the community are implemented, and these communities are provided with the access to projects and programs. As has occurred in other areas, it was the local elite who benefited most from this (declaration of Koshi Tappu as a Ramsar Site). The poorer section of the communities again had almost no access to the inputs of the projects and program.

And again, national bureaucracies failed to consider particular and specific local conditions in the planning and decision-making of community development efforts. The heterogeneity among the people in that site is disguised in the single name of 'community'. In so doing considerable confusion has resulted.

Caste, class, and gender issues are frequently talked about but often nothing is done. This situation has had the effect of exacerbating poverty. Local people are treated as the outsiders and the outsiders who came after the declaration of Koshi Tappu as a Ramsar Site are often taken as the local in that site. Since local people are isolated from their resource, we cannot say it creates opportunities for community development.

All of the above facts about the use of the Ramsar site by the local people gives us an idea about the need of proper management systems to incorporate the positive impact of the Ramsar Site upon the Community's Development.

The possible ways to use the Site/Park in a sustainable way has become an extreme necessity to promote the Community's welfare in terms of the resource uses. Policies should be formulated in such a way that the gradual phase-out of the community's use of the Ramsar Site be implemented in order to carry on the value and prospects of the Conservation of the Wetland of International Importance.

Conclusion

Site –people interactions in the Koshi Tappu Ramsar Site were studied extensively through a variety of economic, social, scientific and attitudinal surveys. The site/reserve had been established for the conservation of wild Buffalo and migratory water-fowl, and protect some of the most important wetland habitat in Nepal; it is therefore vital for the conservation of Bio-diversity on a Regional, National and Global level. However the results showed that the people in the area are dependent on the reserve for natural resources, the exploitation of which may be inimical to the achievement of conservation goals. Other products, such as fuel-wood, edible and medicinal plants and seeds are occasionally collected legally in the Reserve/Site.

Despite some measurable benefits, attitudes about the Reserve/Site are generally poor in the region, at least among local inhabitants who do not understand its major importance. The best predictors of attitudes were the caste or ethnic groups and the literacy rate of the family of the respondents, and not the socio-economic standing of, or the direct cost to, the respondent due to crop damage by Wildlife. These results suggest that religious inculcation, societal discrimination and education may all play a role in shaping attitudes and therefore influencing Park/Site-people relations. Short-term solutions to Site-People conflicts should include more education and extension programs on the part of the site's management, and legal efforts to return some control to local villages.

References

1.Bhandari, Bishnu. 1994. Wetland Biodiversity in Nepal: A Case Study of Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve.   .   Public Awareness of Biodiversity in Wetlands in Asia. Part I and II. Tokyo: Ramsar Center Japan.

2.Singh, Ganga Ram. 1994. Summary Status of Nepal's Ramsar Site. Safeguarding Wetlands in Nepal.   .    . Edited by Bishnu Bhandari, T.B.Shrestha and John McEachern.

3. A paper presented at the International Wetlands Symposium held in Yatsu-Higata
    Ramsar Site, Japan, organized by Narashino City and Ramsar Center Japan, 28-29 October 1995.

4. "An Inventory of Nepal's Terai Wetlands" compiled by Dr. Bishnu Bhandari published by IUCN                    .     Nepal.

§ Wetland is translated as simsar in Nepali. Sim is a derivative of a Persian word Sih, which means low-grade land not suitable for cultivation. Sar is a Sanskrit word meaning water.

♣ Wetland (Simsar) is the Land mass saturated with water due to high water table either through groundwater, atmospheric precipitation or inundation. It may be natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, static or flowing, and fresh or brackish (Shrestha and Bhandari, 1992)

RAMSAR SITE: THREATS AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
By Rabin Bastola

Introduction

PER CENT

Concept of Community Development

All of the above facts about the use of the Ramsar site by the local people gives us an idea about the need of proper management systems to incorporate the positive impact of the Ramsar Site upon the Community's Development.

Conclusion

RAMSAR SITE: THREATS AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT By Rabin Bastola

Introduction

PER CENT

Concept of Community Development

All of the above facts about the use of the Ramsar site by the local people gives us an idea about the need of proper management systems to incorporate the positive impact of the Ramsar Site upon the Community's Development.

Conclusion

RAMSAR SITE: THREATS AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
By Rabin Bastola